Human migration to North America

Scientists believe that the first modern humans to live in North America migrated from Asia across the Bering Land Strait which connected to the region presently known as Alaska and Northern Yukon Territory. It is believed that the migrants were hunter-gatherers, and crossed the Bering Strait gradually over hundreds, or even thousands of years, while hunting large game animals such as Woolly Mammoths and Mastodons.

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First apparent occupation of Prince

Rupert area by ancestral Tshimshian

The northern Pacific coast of British Columbia has been home to the Tsimshian people since as early as 3000 BC. When European explorers first arrived, Prince Rupert Harbour and Kitselas Canyon were heavily populated by ten different tribes. The Tsimshians, who migrated from the northern coasts of British Columbia and Alaska, spent the harsh winters on the coast of Prince Rupert and the warmer months in other regions in temporary lodging.

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The creation of the League

of the Iroquois

The League of the Iroquois (also known as the Five Nations) inhabited the region of upstate New York and Southern Ontario. The League of the Iroquois was comprised of five distinct nations: the Mohawk nation; the Oneida nation; the Onondaga nation; the Cayuga nation and the Seneca nation. Archaeologists and anthropologists have hypothesized that the League was formed prior to European contact, anywhere between 1450 and 1600. Deganawida (The Great Peacemaker) and Hiwatha have traditionally been linked to the creation of the League. The two men allegedly delivered the ‘great peace law’ to the five nations, beginning a period of great peace and prosperity between them.

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First Nations society before European contact

Prior to the arrival of European settlers, the territory which we now call Canada was populated by hundreds of groups or bands of indigenous people. These groups of people settled in the North America by 500 BCE - 1000 CE, each with its own culture, customs and legends. The way of life of each band was heavily influenced by environmental and regional factors which were heavily dependent on what resources were accessible to them. Most groups lived in hunter-gatherer societies and migrated to different geographic regions, depending on the season. Others, including the Iroquois and the Huron peoples, lived in agricultural societies in what is now Southern Ontario. Each group or band had complex social hierarchies, trade networks and forms of self government which recognized the sovereignty of each other.

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The Disappearance of the Tunit or

Dorset Palaeoeskimos People

The first known people to inhabit Arctic North America were the Palaeoeskimo people. The Tunit (as they were known to the Inuit) lived on the northern coast of the Arctic and are believed to have migrated from Northern Asia. It is believed that the Tunit people developed their proper way of life in virtual isolation from other northern peoples. Archaeologists have studied Tunit carvings and artefacts in order to learn about their extinct way of life. The exact cause of this nations rapid annihilation is still unknown to historians and archaeologists. Some have hypothesized that in 1000AD arctic temperatures began to rise drastically and the Tunit people were incapable of adapting to their changing environment. Other theories suggest that as the Tunit nation grew smaller, many Tunit chose to live with the Inuit people.

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Adoption of corn agriculture in lower

Great Lakes area

Archaeologists have estimated that the domestication of plant life and the farming of corn or maize crops began in North America anywhere between 500-1000 AD. French explorer Samuel de Champlain described the corn fields shown to him by Algonquin chief Nibachis in the 17th century. Historians have noted that many native communities possessed relatively advanced agricultural practices notably using oak and elm tree ash to enrich soil. These agricultural practices were later adopted by European settlers.

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Vikings Bjarni Herjólfsson & Leif Eriksson:

first known European sighting of Canada

Leif Eriksson was a Norse explorer who is regarded as the first European to land on North America with his crew of 35 in 1002 or 1003. The Greenlander Saga tells the story of Bjarni Herjólfsson, a merchant who first saw the land while accidentally veering off course en route to Iceland. Years later, Eriksson bought Bjarni's boat and set out to find the land that he had seen, arriving with his crew, in what is believed to have been Baffin Island, and later in Northern Newfoundland, eventually settling for a short time in a place that they called Vinland. In the 1950s and 1960s, an explorer called Helge Ingstad and his wife, archeologist Anne Stine Ingstad found what they believe to be a the Norse settlement of Eriksson and his crew in an area now called L'Anse aux Meadows, in Newfoundland.

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Cabot claims Newfoundland

John Cabot, born in Genoa, Italy, was part of an age of exploration where wealthy and powerful European nations sought to explore untapped resources of the “New World”. At the request of King Henry VII of England, Cabot set sail on May 2, 1497 aboard a ship called Matthew which led them to the shores of what was likely Newfoundland or Cape Breton, but no one knows for certain. Cabot claimed the land for England and upon his return, told stories of an abundance of cod fish, which played a crucial role in the development of North Atlantic fisheries.

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Cartier lands at Gaspé

In 1534, Jacques Cartier set out on a voyage across the Atlantic on behalf of the King of France in order to find a passage to China. Instead, Cartier discovered Gaspé which is now part of Quebec. Cartier laid French claim to the land by planting a cross and returned to France to report this land of riches to the King. Cartier returned on a second voyage to explore the new land, sailing further up the St. Lawrence River despite warnings from the Iroquois people. Many of the crew became sick with scurvy and died over the winter, except for a few saved by the Iroquois' healing methods. Finally, in 1541, Cartier returned for a third time with the intention of forming a French colony, which did not last.

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Samuel de Champlain arrives in Acadia

Champlain was a French explorer and navigator who came to North America in 1603. Champlain navigated the Saint Croix River and established Acadia, a settlement on Saint Croix Island in 1604. After a harsh winter in 1605, the settlement was moved over to Port Royal (now Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia). By 1608 Champlain had acquired sufficient geographical knowledge of the East Coast and set off for what is now Québec City. Port Royal disbanded as Champlain began the settlement that would become New France. The region referred to as Acadie (Acadia) by the French, now encompass New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island and eastern Maine.

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Iroquois destruction of Huronia

Huronia was a collective of Huron villages around the Great Lakes region which came under attack of the Iroquois people. Leading up to the destruction of the villages, the Huron people had found themselves severely weakened by several factors: Jesuits had arrived in Huronia to spread Christianity and many Huron people had converted to the European religion. However, this caused a divide in the community between those who converted to Christianity and those who did not. The Huron's feud with the Iroquois people was centred around the group's trade arrangements with European settlers. The Huron people had formed a trade relationship with the French but they had to travel hundreds of kilometers to the French settlements. The Iroquois people, on the other hand, traded with the Dutch settlers in Fort Orange, which was nearby both Huron and Iroquois villages. The Huron people requested to be included in this convenient trade arrangement with the Dutch but the Iroquois refused. The Iroquois did not want to share this trade relationship with the Huron because they believed that with more suppliers to the Dutch settlers, there would be less demand for their own goods. In spring 1649, more than 1000 Iroquois warriors attacked the Huron people with firearms given to them by the Dutch. The Huron villages were decimated, and the few who remained fled their homes to start a new life with the French in Quebec.

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Formation of The Hudson's Bay Company

Incorporated by the British Royal Charter in 1670, the Hudson's Bay Company is the oldest commercial corporation in North America and is also one of the oldest in the world. The signing of the royal charter gave HBC an exclusive trading monopoly over the entire Hudson Bay drainage basin, an area that reached from Labrador to the Canadian Rockies and down to the American border - over 1.5 million square miles. The rights and obligations in the charter included the right to exploit mineral resources and the obligation to search for the Northwest Passage. Through their explorations, HBC fur traders and trappers were able to forge relationships with Native Americans. The 200-year monopoly held by the Royal Charter came to an end in 1868 when most of HBC's land was surrendered to the British Crown and was then transferred to Canada in 1870. Today the HBC is known for its department stores across Canada and most recently for outfitting the entire 2010 Canadian Olympic team.

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Founding of Halifax

In 1749, the Hon. Edward Cornwallis brought 2500 British settlers to the island of Nova Scotia to establish a permanent settlement. The new settlement was named Halifax, after the President of the British Board of Trade at the time, Lord Halifax. Before the British settlement was established, the area was the base of a French fishing station and was populated by a French-speaking group called Acadians. The newly founded town had many «firsts» for North America: the first post office; the first newspaper (the Halifax Gazette); the first representative assembly; and, the first continuous salt water ferry, which travelled to and from Dartmouth.

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Acadian Deportation

During the 18th century, British colonists forcibly removed Acadian peoples from the maritime provinces of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island. The Acadian people were descendants of 17th century French colonists who grew culturally distinct from the French settlers occupying Quebec. In 1710, the British conquered Port Royal. This triumph strengthened British control over the region. All inhabitants were required to sign an unconditional allegiance to the British crown. However, the Acadian people refused to sign this allegiance. Further, over the next 45 years the British and the Acadians were forced into varying degrees of conflict with one another. Many Acadians aided in the defence of the French fortress of Louisbourg and of Fort Beausejour. As a result, British colonists saw the Acadians as a major threat to their sovereignty. By order of the newly appointed governor of Nova Scotia, Charles Lawrence, Acadians were arrested and gathered for deportation. In 1755, the first wave of Acadians was deported to other British colonies. Many others fled to Francophone colonies and to unsettled areas in the Maritimes. The second wave of Acadian deportation sent many Acadians back to Europe, to live in Britain or France. Sadly, during this mass exodus many Acadians died as a result of disease, drowning or starvation.

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Battle of the Plains of Abraham

(Battle of Québec)

British troops led by General James Wolfe successfully fought against French troops led by Louis-Joseph de Montcalm. Although it was a short battle involving approximately 8 thousand troops and only four guns, it resulted in the death of both Wolfe and Montcalm and played a decisive role in the fall of New France and the creation of Canada as a British colony.

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Canada's role in the slave trade

In 1780 there were approximately 4 thousand people of African descent living in the British Colonies and it is estimated that 18 hundred of these people were slaves. Later counts suggest that there are over 4 thousand recorded slaves in Canadian history.The first anti-slavery law was established in 1793, however it did not make slavery illegal, it only prevented the importation of any further slaves to Canada - "An Act to Prevent the Future Introduction of Slaves."Slavery in Canada was legally abolished in the 1830's. Following this, thousands of African-Americans fled to Canada using secret escape routes and by hiding with sympathetic black and white abolitionists – this system became known as the Underground Railroad. Despite the fact that Canada had a history of slavery, is often overlooked or is seen as less significant than the United States of America's slavery practices.

David Thompson

Defining the border with the US

David Thompson was an explorer who came from England in 1784 at the age of 14. He arrived in Hudson Bay and traveled over 90 thousand kilometers by horse, canoe, dogsled and on foot. Thompson produced maps of over 3.9 million square kilometers of North America. He worked for both the Hudson's Bay Company and the North West Company as a fur trader, however, his desire to survey land and design maps led him away from trading. He became an official astronomer for the British Boundary Commission and his detailed maps of Upper and Lower Canada (now Ontario and Québec) helped define the U.S./Canada border, from Cornwall in Eastern Ontario to the Lake of the Woods in North Western Ontario. He is referred to as the "greatest geographer who ever lived".

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Laura Secord

Although Laura Secord is widely known as the face of an ice cream chain, she is famous for acting as an important Canadian heroine during the war of 1812.. After U.S. officials forced their way into her house and demanded a meal, they boasted about their plans to attack British troops by making a surprise move against British Lieutenant James FitzGibbon. Secord overheard their conversation, and being a fierce Loyalist, she bravely set off to warn Lieutenant FitzGibbon herself. Risking her life to defend the British Colony, she encountered dangerous landscapes, American soldiers and bands of Iroquois on her way. Secord eventually made her way to FitzGibbon's headquarters just in time to warn him of the attack and managed save the Niagara Peninsula from being lost to the U.S. It was not until 1860 that Secord was recognized for her heroic role in the battle of 1812.

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Baldwin and Lafontaine

Efforts to bridge the English/French divide

Robert Baldwin and Louis-Hyppolite Lafontaine helped unite the French and English as well as convince the British government that legislative power should be transferred to the elected assembly in the Colony. Lafontaine and Baldwin were young lawyers who also held political positions in Lower and Upper Canada respectively.In the 1830’s, the political elite dominated the governance of Canada. They had little reason to worry about the elected assemblies below them because they had the support of British governors. However, in 1837 tensions grew against these ruling elites and a rebellion formed. Lord Durham was sent from Britain to Canada to investigate the rebellion – based on his analysis he recommended greater power should be given to the elected assemblies in addition to supporting the unification of Upper and Lower Canada. Despite the objection from Lower Canadians, unification took place in 1841 (Act of Union).Following the unification, Lafontaine lost the election in Lower Canada, while Baldwin was elected in two ridings in Upper Canada. Baldwin asked if Lafontaine would come to Upper Canada and win the extra seat from him. Lafontaine agreed and won the seat based on his platform of French-English cooperation where they convinced the government that the elected officials should hold more decision making power.

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Residential Schools

established for Aboriginal Youth

In the 19th century, the Canadian Government established Residential Schools in order to assimilate the country's aboriginal people. The government took approximately 150 000 First Nations, Inuit and Métis children against their will, from their homes across Canada, and put them in residential schools where they were taught English and French, Christian traditions and Canadian customs. It was thought that if every aboriginal child attended, native traditions would be wiped out within a few generations. Students endured poor living conditions as well as emotional, physical and sexual abuse at the hands of their teachers and supervisors. Students lived at these schools ten months a year, were separated by gender and forced to communicate in only English or French. Residential Schools tore families apart and generated a culture shame among young aboriginal children about their heritage and customs. In 1990, Phil Fontaine started a movement to acknowledge the tragic abuses which occurred in residential schools in order to force their closure. This movement resulted in the remaining residential schools to be closed in Canada, the last of which was shut in 1996. In 2007, a $1.9 billion compensation package was formalized for those who were forced to attend residential schools. In 2008 Prime Minister Stephen Harper offered the first official apology to former students of the residential schools, calling it, "a sad chapter in our history" and recognizing that, " the policy of assimilation was wrong, has caused great harm, and has no place in our country". The tragic effects of residential schools continue to play a role in Canadian politics and society.

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1857: Ottawa, the Queen’s Choice

In 1857, Ottawa was chosen by young Queen Victoria as the capital of the Province of Canada. At the time, the little lumber town in the middle of nowhere may have seemed an unlikely choice, but with the construction of impressive new Parliament buildings, the transformation into a national capital was well under way. The choice of Ottawa as capital did not please its rivals, and was roundly criticized in the press. Nevertheless, Ottawa was officially named the capital of the Province of Canada in 1857.

Metis People

The métis are a group of people whose ancestry can be traced to both European settlers and First Nation peoples in Canada. In the 18th century, French fur traders from the North West Company along with British and Scottish men from the Hudson's Bay Company produced children with women from Cree, Ojibway, Algonquin, Saulteaux, Menominee, Mi'kmaq and Maliseet nations. These families and their offspring began to form their own unique culture; mixing European and First Nations languages in addition to combining Catholicism and indigenous belief systems and customs. Many métis people settled in the Red River region of Manitoba, with a population totalling approximately 9 thousand by 1869.

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Canadian Confederation

July 1, 1867 officially started the process by which the federal Dominion of Canada was formed. Initially, three British colonies were joined to create four Canadian provinces. These provinces were Ontario, Québec, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. Over the next decades the other provinces that now form Canada would follow, with Newfoundland as the last to join in 1949. The confederation was achieved through a series of conferences in Charlottetown, PEI, Québec, QC. and London, ON which eventually resulted in the “British North American Acts”. In the British North American Acts, the Queen of England proclaimed "We do ordain, declare, and command that on and after the First day of July, One Thousand Eight Hundred and Sixty-seven, the Provinces of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick, shall form and be One Dominion, under the name of Canada”.

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Red River Rebellion

The Red River Rebellion took place in what is now Manitoba, just after Confederation. The new Canadian Government bought Rupert's Land from the Hudson's Bay Company and appointed English-speaking William McDougall to replace Louis Riel as the leader of the region, which was comprised of mainly French-speaking, Metis people. Riel's supporters refused entry to McDougall and established a provisional government. This government negotiated with the Canadian government to have Assiniboia made a province. Riel’s supporters also executed a member of the pro-Canadian faction, Thomas Scott, for allegedly threatening to kill Louis Riel. In 1870 the Manitoba Act was passed after a negotiation between the Assiniboia provision government and Canada, which allowed the Red River settlement to enter Confederation as the province of Manitoba. Canadian Military troops were sent west to enforce federal authority in Manitoba and arrest Riel for the execution of Scott, however, Riel fled and the arrival of troops in Manitoba was seen as the end of the Red River Rebellion. Currently, Manitoba still celebrates Louis Riel with a provincial holiday that is celebrated on the third Monday of February. Also, groups in Québec have lobbied the Canadian government to absolve Riel posthumously of his criminal record and affirm that he was not a traitor or criminal, but there has been little response to this.

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Opening of the St. Lawrence Seaway

The St. Lawrence Seaway is comprised of a system of locks, canals and channels that allow boats to travel from the Atlantic Ocean to the North American Great Lakes, as far as Lake Superior. The Seaway was opened to navigation in 1959. It was first constructed in 1829 linking Lake Ontario to Lake Erie – the canal was improved upon in the 1950's when it was deepened, and again in 1973 when it was straightened. The construction of the Seaway was mired in tumultuous negotiation between Canada and the United States. It is considered one of the most complex engineering feats in history

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Alexander Graham Bell

patents the telephone

In 1874 Alexander Graham Bell, from Brantford Ontario, stated his plans to conceive of a wire that would transmit human voice. This plan was realized in 1875 and the telephone was invented. In 1876 the telephone debuted at the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia and was a huge success. Bell's invention allowed for global communication through long distance calling and was used by Canadians in the Second World War.By 1932 Canada had its first all-Canadian phone line. Bell Telephone Company remains one of Canada's largest companies with its head offices in Québec.

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Formation of the Indian Act

The “Civilization of the Indian Tribes Act” was enacted in 1857 by the British colonial government. This first deed of the Act was aimed at assimilating First Nations people into European settler society. They offered “Indians” who were capable of reading and signing their name the opportunity to vote, to own property and to serve on juries in exchange for relinquishing their land, language, culture and existing rights. After the establishment of the British North American Act, the Indian Act was established by the newly formed Canadian government in further effort to assimilate and “civilize” First Nations peoples. Among other provisions, the Indian Act determined that specific Crown land would be set aside for Indian Reserves which were controlled by the Minister of Indian Affairs. Under the 1876 Bill, the local “Indian Agent” became the de facto ruler of the “Indians” living on a Reserve on behalf of the Canadian government. Residents of the Reserve were required to obtain written permission from the Indian Agent to leave the Reserve for any reason and to produce or sell goods.

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Treaty no. 7

Treaty no. 7 was the last in a series of agreements made between the Blackfoot Confederacy and the British over the 1870s. The agreement stipulated that the tribes ceded their rights to their traditional territory to the British government. The British government was to provide an area of land (a reserve) where each family would receive one square mile, plus a limited supply of cattle, some shared farm equipment and a small amount of money. The agreement also made limited commitments to the Natives for education for children and medical care. The government wanted a way to control the natives on the land in order to build a railway across the country to the newly acquired British Columbia to encourage immigration to the west.

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Formation of the Canadian Pacific Railway

The Canadian Pacific Railway, stretching from British Columbia to eastern Canada (Québec) was completed between the years of 1881 and 1885. It was Canada's first transcontinental railway, however, it still does not reach the Atlantic coast. The development of B.C. and Alberta can be attributed to the CPR, as it allowed for long-distance passenger transport. It also lead to the establishment of a National Park system in the Canadian Rockies, the discovery of natural gas in Alberta, and also played a role in the World Wars carrying military personal and shipping freights overseas. The building of the railway was an incredible feat of engineering. It was also a source of political controversy, which toppled the Conservative government in 1873 led by John A. Macdonald. It was finished six years ahead of schedule in 1885 when the famous "Last Spike" was driven in at Craigellachie, B.C. Currently the CPR is an independent public company with headquarters in Calgary, Alberta.

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Frog Lake Massacre

The Frog Lake Massacre took place at Frog Lake village in Western Canada during the North-West Rebellion of 1885. The conflict was a reaction to the tenuous relationship between the Cree nation led by Chief Wandering Spirit and Canadian government official Thomas Quinn. Angered by a dwindling population of buffalo (causing a severe lack of food) and Quinn’s alleged harshness and arrogance toward the tribe, Chief Wandering Spirit led a group of Cree warriors on April 1st, 1885 to Quinn's house. There they took Quinn and several other white settlers hostage. As the conflict escalated nine settlers were shot. In the largest public execution in Canadian history, Chief Wandering Spirit and five other Cree warriors were convicted of treason and hanged until death at Frog Lake.

Manitoba Schools Act

The Manitoba Act of 1870, which created the new western province of Manitoba, stipulated that there would be no particular denomination prioritized for publicly funded schools that resulted in Manitoba’s Roman Catholic schools, which were largely French speaking, and Protestant schools, which were largely English speaking. The Manitoba Act had also given the French and English equal standing in the courts and legislature. In 1890, Thomas Greenway, on behalf of the provincial government, created the Manitoba Schools Act, which would have a single public school system and stopped funding to both systems. In large part, the Protestant schools became the new public schools while funding was cut from Catholic schools. Many people saw this as an attack on French Canadians and on Roman Catholics and the controversy brought up many issues — between French and English, Catholic and Protestants, Federal and Provincial jurisdiction and between Church and State.

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Invention of Basketball

Born in Ontario and educated at McGill, James Naismith officially created the game of basketball in 1891 while he worked at a YMCA training school in the U.S.A. In order to engage students in physical activity during the winter, Naismith developed basketball with specific requirements: he wanted a sport that could be played inside, in a relatively small area that relied on skill rather than just strength. He developed 13 rules and soon students at schools and colleges nation-wide began playing the game.Basketball was introduced as an Olympic sport in 1936 at the Berlin Olympics and today it is one of the world's most popular games. Wheelchair basketball is also very popular and is included in the summer Paralympic games.

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First Stanley Cup

The Stanley Cup was donated in 1893 by Lord Stanley for presentation to the amateur hockey championships of Canada, and was first awarded to the Montreal AAA team. Lord Stanley, the Governor General of Canada, and his family first became exposed to hockey at the Montreal 1889 Winter Carnival and the family soon became avid hockey players and enthusiastic fans. His two sons later formed a new team called the Ottawa Rideau Hall Players, and the boys convinced their father to donate the trophy.

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Wilfrid Laurier

elected as first French Prime Minister

Sir Wilfrid Laurier was elected as Prime Minister of Canada in 1896 and held his term for 15 years — the longest in Canadian history, winning 4 consecutive elections. Laurier was also the first French Canadian to be elected as Prime Minister and he is known for his policies that encouraged the compromise and partnership between the French and the English.

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Sifton's immigration policy

Clifford Sifton held the position of Minister of the Interior from 1896 — 1905, and alongside Prime Minister Wilfrid Laurier, become the face of Canada's new immigration policy at the turn of the century. Sifton designed his immigration policy around a need for economic stimulation and sought immigrants who would work as farmers to settle the rural West. Using an innovative advertising campaign, Sifton attracted experienced farmers from the US, Great Britain and for the first time, Continental Europe. However, Sifton discouraged select ethnic groups from immigrating to Canada based on race; Italians, Blacks, Jews as well as urban dwellers were not welcome because he claimed that these groups would not succeed as farmers. The Western frontier was an attractive destination to many Europeans who left rural poverty and often faced religious and racial persecution. However, not all Canadians were welcoming of the new comers – many nativists criticized Sifton for the rising non-British population and their lack of assimilation to British-Canadian norms.

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Alberta and Saskatchewan

become 8th & 9th province to join Canada

At the turn of the century, as many as 2 million people had immigrated to Canada's western frontier to begin farming and settling the land. On September 1, 1905, with the passing of the Alberta Act and the Saskatchewan Act, the provinces of Saskatchewan and Alberta were created in the territory between Manitoba and British Columbia.

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Charles Saunders

develops Marquis wheat

After a failed attempt at a career in music, Charles Saunders accepted the Cerealist position at the Experimental Farm in Ottawa, where he worked to develop many new varieties of grains. His greatest success during his career was in developing Marquis wheat, a strain of wheat which was quick to ripen. Prior to Saunders’ new creation, there had been a problem with farming wheat in western Canada because the slow growing wheat yielded a limited production in the relatively short growing seasons which resulted in these areas not being settled. Using rigorous testing and scientific methods for selective breeding, Saunders came up with the fast growing Marquis strain which would produce large crops in the prairie region. The Marquis strain of wheat helped to create opportunities for farmers to settle the land and earned Canada a worldwide reputation for having high quality wheat.

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J.E. Bernier

Declares Canadian sovereignty over the Artic

J.E. Bernier, a lifelong sailor and ship captain, was hired by the Canadian government in 1904 to patrol the eastern Arctic. His job was mainly to collect duty and license fees from traders and whalers, and also hosted scientists and business men aboard his ship while they conducted research for scientific study and exploration. Bernier and his crew spent the winter of 1906-1907 on Baffin Island and the winter of 1908-1909 on Melville Island. In 1909, Bernier placed a plaque on Melville Island, declaring Canadian sovereignty over the Arctic Islands.

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Invention of the zipper

The zipper made its first appearance nearly 80 years before the modern zipper was accepted in 1913. The first attempts at creating a zipper were met with little success but with the hard work of electrical engineer Gideon Sunback (who immigrated to Canada from Sweden) the zipper was made into a commercial success in 1913 and it was patented in 1917 as the "Separable Fastener". The B.F Goodrich Company termed the name zipper when they started using it as a fastener on their boots. It took 30 years for the fashion industry to start using it regularly in clothing and accessories.

Borden implements conscription

The Conscription Crisis of 1917 was a fierce political debate over Canada's military role in WWI, and Prime Minister Robert Borden's effort to implement conscription. When the war broke out in 1914, Prime Minister Borden voiced the opinion that Canada, as allies to Great Britain, we should contribute a large number of soldiers. Borden's opinion was a controversial one, since the position that Canada should participate in the war because of an allegiance to Great Britain was strongly opposed by the Francophone community who felt their allegiance was to Quebec – not to Britain nor to France. As the Allies began suffering heavy casualties and Canadian volunteer soldiers were becoming more scarce, Borden answered Britain's call for help by implementing conscription with the passage of the Military Service Act. Strong opposition arose almost unanimously from the Francophone community led by Henri Bourassa, and furious protests were organized across Quebec.

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Newfoundlanders at the Battle of Somme

The battle of Somme was devastating for France. In their attempts to push the German infantry into retreating France was hit with over 800 thousand causalities and no military gains. During the battle the British lost over 58 thousand men, making July 1, 1916 the highest casualty day in England’s history. Newfoundland was not yet part of Canada, yet they were called to battle. Out of the 801 men who left the trenches to fight, only 69 were able to fight the next day. In September, the Newfoundlanders fought with the support of tanks and a rolling barrage – the three Canadian Divisions fought in terrible conditions at Somme until November 1916, when success was finally achieved and the German position fell. This battle established Canadians as a formidable military force. It also highlighted the need to give the Canadian military more autonomy from the British High Throne when making plans to attack at war. Canada lost over 24 000 troops at Somme.

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The Women's vote

There are number of groups and individuals that started the women's suffrage movement in Canada. Among those pionneering women, it is worth noting Dr. Emily Stowe, who was Canada's first female doctor and creator of the Toronto Women's Literary Club in 1876, as well as her daughter, Dr. Augusta Stowe-Gullen, who lead the Ontario campaign for women's suffrage for 40 years. In the 1890's the Women's Christian Temperance Union had a breakthrough when they suggested that women’s' vote would be necessary to achieve prohibition in Canada. In the prairies, Nellie McClung led a successful movement of suffragettes and beginning January 28th, 1916, women in Manitoba were allowed to vote. This led Saskatchewan, Alberta, British Columbia and Ontario to give women the vote in March and April of 1916 year, and on May 24th, 1918, women across Canada gained the right to vote. Unfortunately, women in the provinces and territories of New Brunswick,, Prince Edward Island, Newfoundland and Labrador, Québec, the Northwest Territories and the Yukon were not allowed to vote until the years following 1918.

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Halifax Harbour Explosion

The Halifax Explosion occurred when two ships in the Halifax Harbour collided. One was the Mont Blanc: a French ship full of ammunition to be used in WWI overseas and the Imo: which had no ammunition on board and was headed to New York after a trip from Holland. Mixed signals resulted in the fateful collision. A fire started on the Mont Blanc followed by an explosion. The fire was created by the detonation of what would be the equivalent of 2989 tons of TNT. The heat at the center of the blast was over 5000C and created a shockwave which traveled at more than 1500 meters/second. The blast sent coal, shrapnel, soot, carbon, glass, and gasses into the sky, and pushed a tidal wave 3 blocks into the harbour. The effects were devastating – over 1600 people died, over 9000 injured, over 325 acres of land was destroyed and 25 000 buildings toppled. Communication lines were destroyed which further complicated relief efforts in the decimated Harbour. It was the worst man made explosion in history until the Hiroshima bombing in Japan.

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Canada's role at Vimy Ridge

After a successful defeat and show of force at the battle of Somme, all four Canadian divisions, over 100 thousand men, fought together for the first time at the battle of Vimy Ridge. April 9th 1917 was a big day for the four divisions as they split up and attacked the Germans on a number of different fronts. They were met with a strong German resistance, but managed to achieve their objectives and take Vimy Ridge into Canadian hands on April 10th. On April 13th the Germans withdrew and retreated from Vimy. The win at Vimy Ridge was a turning point in the war for the Allies and Canada as a nation. Vimy Ridge solidified the Canadian Corps' reputation as the "most effective fighting machine of the Western Front, and of Canada itself".

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Winnipeg General Strike

The Winnipeg General Strike began the morning of May 15, 1919. Nearly 30,000 workers walked off the job in a demand for better working conditions; a right to collective bargaining; an 8 hour working day and a living wage. The strike was also a showcase of working class solidarity. The strike was a result of months of unproductive negotiations between the employers and workers of the Winnipeg Builders Exchange. The Winnipeg Builders Exchange at the time was part of the Building Trades Council union and was later joined by the Metal Trades Council and the Labour Council of Winnipeg. The committee created to reach a peaceful solution to the strike found that it was impossible to reach an agreement between the unions and the employers. Consequently, six weeks into the strike, government officials began arresting labour leaders and ordered an end to the strike. Four days after a mass government arrest, mounted police charged into a crowd of strikers causing a number of injuries and one casualty. Following “Bloody Saturday”, the police regained control of the city and strikers returned to work.

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First Group of Seven Show

The Group of Seven was a group of Canadian landscape painters in the 1920s that remain among the most famous group of artists to have come from Canada. The group consisted of Franklin Carmichael, Lawren Harris, A.Y. Jackson, Frank Johnston, Arthur Lismer, J.E.H. MacDonald and Fred Varley. Although they are often closely associated with the group, Emily Carr and Tom Thomson were never officially members of the Group of Seven. The group was influenced by European Impressionism but sought to create a new identity for Canadian art through the exploration of rugged beauty of the Canadian landscape which they believed represented the spirit of the nation. The group held their first group show in Toronto at the Art Gallery of Ontario in 1920.

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Grey Owl

Conservation Stories

Archibald Belaney, known as Grey Owl, was a conservationist that led Canadians to believe he was a Canadian-born First Nations author. In reality, he was actually from Britain and had moved to Canada as a 17 year old, curious about the native way of life. He became a strong advocate for the conservation of Canada's natural wilderness and without his promotion of the need for greater awareness and protection of Canada's landscape, it might have been irreparably damaged. In addition to taking care of both animals and nature, Grey Owl produced a film and wrote books including: The Men of the Last Frontier, Pilgrims of the Wild, and a children's book titled Sajo and Her Beaver People, which received rave reviews. In 1936, Grey owl went on a lecture tour through England and during this time his health began to fail and in 1938 Grey Owl died. Canadians were outraged when they learned of his real identity, however, his contribution to Canada's wildlife and the impact he had on preservation of Canada’s wilderness is undeniable.

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Japanese Canadian internment

during WWII

Following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbour in 1941, the internment of Japanese people in Canada began. Despite having no involvement in the attack on Pearl Harbour, Japanese citizens in British Columbia were sent away to internment camps along the Pacific Coast. Their land was sold, belongings lost and families torn apart. The Canadian government deceived these people, telling them them they were being brought to "shelters" for their own safety, and that they could return to their land shortly. After the defeat of Japan and the end of WWII, Japanese citizens were told they would either be transferred to other parts of the country or deported to Japan. Protests and public outrage led to the repeal of the wartime legislation that validated the internment and in 1947 a Royal Commission was appointed to examine what happened to their land and possessions. There were a number of post-war attempts to marginally compensate internees, however, it was not until 1988 that Canadian Prime Minister, Brian Mulroney made a formal apology to Japanese-Canadians. Each surviving internee was given a compensation package of 21 thousand and citizenship was offered to any internees who were deported to Japan.

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Canada at the Dieppe Raid

The attack on Dieppe began in August, 1942. The allies' objective was to take back the French port of Dieppe that was being occupied by German forces. The nine hour battle was exceptionally difficult because it took place on a narrow beach surrounded by cliffs that were occupied by strategically placed Germans, who were awaiting the arrival of allied troops. Allied troops didn't stand a chance against the German troops who swept the beach with machine gun fire and there were many casualties. 4, 963 Canadian troops were sent to the Battle of Dieppe – 907 were killed, many more were wounded. Over 19 hundred troops were captured and taken as prisoners of war. The Battle of Dieppe was a catastrophic failure that remains one of Canada's most controversial military topics. It is still debated today whether the raid should have been carried out. However, there were valuable lessons learned at this battle that were used to defeat German troops in years following 1942.

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Italian Campaign

The Italian Campaign began in July, 1943 with the invasion of Sicily. The campaign lasted until 1945 when the Canadian troops were redeployed from Italy and brought back to the Western Front. The invasion started in Sicily but moved over to mainland Italy. British, French and Canadian forces fought, not only to conquer Italy, but also to divert German forces away from the U.S.S.R. Canadians played an instrumental role in the Moro River Campaign, the Battle of Otona and later, the battles to break the Hitler Line. The Campaign was Canada's largest on ground contribution in WWII, with over 76 000 Canadians serving in Italy at its peak and creating over 25 thousand casualties, with close to 6 thousand of them fatal. The campaign was long, difficult and costly, but successful. Three Canadians who fought in Italy were awarded Victoria Crosses.

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Day of Deliverance

D-Day refers to the day that Allied troops landed in Normandy on June 6th,1944. D-Day encompasses the fighting that took place until August 1944. D-Day was the largest Canadian military operation to date. In addition to ground troops, The Royal Canadian Navy also made a large contribution to the military operation. 14 000 Canadians arrived on Juno beach and were met with the strongest resistance to be seen during World War II besides Omaha. The troops had 50% causalities within the first hour. Despite this, Canadian troops made it across the beach and inland quicker than any other Allied force. The troops fought fiercely and secured the towns of Bernières, Courseulles and St. Aubin. Securing these towns derailed the German operation and marked a turning point in WWII as Hitler was forced to fight a war on both an eastern and western front. Canadians made more progress inland than any other allied force and received a high degree of recognition and respect for their contribution to the D-Day victory. The victory at Normandy led to the defeat of Nazi Germany and European liberation from Nazi control.

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Tommy Douglas

and the Canada Health Act

In 1946 Tommy Douglas, head of the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation of Saskatchewan, passed the Saskatchewan Hospitalization Act, which allowed most of Saskatchewan's population to receive free medical services. Between 1947 and 1950, Alberta and British Columbia also implemented government-supported health insurance legislation. In 1957 the federal government under Diefenbaker passed the Hospital Insurance and Diagnostic Services Act (HIDS), which established the five pillars that the Canadian Health Act is currently based on. In 1961 all ten provinces agreed to start HIDS programs and in 1966 the federal government of Lester B. Pearson introduced the Medicare act, which allowed each province to have a universal health care plan, supported by the federal government. In 1984, the passing of the Canada Health Act prohibited any user fees or extra billing by doctors and universal health care in Canada was realized. Universal health care is widely recognized as one of Canada's defining moments. It was the cause of political and social strife throughout the decades leading up to the 1984 Health Act but despite its criticisms it remains central to the Canadian identity.

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Canada joins NATO

The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) is a military alliance that was established in 1949 to promote stability and freedom in the North Atlantic region. The alliance was founded on three principles: democracy, individual liberty and international law. Canada has been a member of NATO since its foundation in 1949. As a member of NATO, Canada has access to high-level intelligence, technical expertise, exercises with the other NATO members and is allowed to participate in decision-making that affects Euro-Atlantic security and stability. Canada is the third largest financial supporter and contributor of personnel to the NATO Airborne Early Warning System and Control (AWACS). Considering Canada's demographics, the financial, military and intelligence contributions that we make to NATO are very substantial.

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NFLD joins Canada as 10th province

On March 31, 1949, following much debate and two referendums, Newfoundland joined Canada as its 10th province. Previously, Newfoundland had opted for self government under the British crown. The Great Depression forced Newfoundlanders to seek economic aid from Britain, and in exchange to renounce their independence. By June 3rd, 1948 the people were presented three options in their first referendum. Their first option was to continue the commission rule of the British; the second option was to return to self-government and the third option was confederacy with Canada. 85% of voters were in favour of self rule or confederacy, however neither choice received a majority. Consequently a second referendum was held on July 22nd of the same year where 52.34% of voters chose to join Canada.

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The Avro Arrow

The idea of the Avro Arrow was conceived in 1953 and was first tested in 1958. The Avro Arrow was an expensive but technically and aerodynamically advanced plane that was destined to serve as the Royal Canadian Air Force's primary interceptor in the 1960's. When the Liberal government was defeated in 1957 by the Progressive Conservatives led by John Diefenbaker, the fate of the Avro Arrow drew near. The Avro Arrow project was terminated due to financial complications and criticisms that new foreign threats did not include the threat of bomber missiles, causing the Arrow to be unnecessary. The official cancellation of the Avro Arrow was announced on February 29th, 1959 to the dismay of Canada's aviation industry and the thousands of employees who lost their jobs. To date the cancellation of the Avro Arrow is an issue of contention among historians, politicians and those in the aviation industry.

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Suez Canal

Despite having no direct military or political role in the crisis, Canada's Prime Minister, Lester B. Pearson took it upon himself to ensure that the crisis did not become the next world war. Pearson was able to do so by proposing the United Nations establish their own peacekeeping force. Within one year of his proposal the UN peacekeeping force (UNEF) became a reality. Pearson was harshly criticized by Britain and France for being disloyal and betraying them in the Suez Crisis, however, Canada's decision to take a non-aggressive position during this crisis helped prevent it from escalating into a war. Pearson's decision not to join the Allies in fighting Egypt was a show of Canadian sovereignty and determination on an international level. Pearson won a Nobel Peace Prize in 1957 for his help in establishing the UNEF.

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Election of René Levesque

René Levesque was the first Premier after Confederation who tried to negotiate political independence for Québec. In 1960 he joined the neo-nationalist Québec Liberal Party under Jean Lesage. Once they defeated the Union Nationale Party in June 1960, Levesque quickly rose to the top of the "Quiet Revolution" in Québec. He nationalized Québec's private hydro-electric companies in 1964, which made Hydro-Québec: North America's largest and most successful producer and distributor of electricity. He advocated that Québec receive "special status" which would benefit Québec's social services and political powers. His views were too radical for the majority; however, he still pursued the goal of political independence for Québec with continued economic association with Canada. The Quiet Revolution eventually slowed in the late 1980's as Levesque stepped down. Levesque was known for his strong neo-nationalism as well as his sincerity and determination

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David Suzuki's environmentalism

David Suzuki was born in Vancouver and graduated from the University of Chicago in 1961 with a PhD in Zoology. After completing his PhD, Suzuki worked as a professor of genetics at the University of British Columbia from 1963 until 2001. After his retirement, Suzuki focused on advocacy and the David Suzuki Foundationwhich focuses on oceans, sustainable fishing, climate change, clean energy, sustainability and Suzuki's Nature Challenge. Suzuki emerged as a broadcaster in the 1970's as a host of the CBC series called Suzuki on Science. Following this, Suzuki hosted a science series called Science Magazine and in 1979 Science Magazine and The Nature of Things merged to form the one-hour show: The Nature of Things with David Suzuki. Suzuki has received many awards including the Order of Canada and the Order of British Columbia and has been nominated as one of Canada's top ten "Greatest Canadians". He has published 43 books and has received 23 honorary degrees. He is Canada's most well known environmental activist and his work concerning the environment and climate change is recognized internationally.

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Marshall McLuhan publishes

“The Gutenberg Galaxy”

Marshall McLuhan, noted Canadian scholar, literary critic and communications theorist published his first major work, the Gutenberg Galaxy in 1962. McLuhan was born in Edmonton, Alberta and was raised in Manitoba. He received his BA and MA from the University of Manitoba and eventually earned his PhD from Cambridge University. McLuhan was a pioneer in the fields of media and cultural study. Through the Gutenberg Galaxy, a discussion of communications technology and its effects on society, McLuhan coined the phrase ‘the medium is the message’. He suggested that means of communication (be it radio, television or the written word) have their own inherent bias and language and consequently impact the audience regardless of the message. McLuhan taught at the University of Toronto’s Centre for Culture and Technology.

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Canada Pension Plan

Prime Minister, Lester B. Pearson is well known for initiating the Canadian Pension Plan (CPP). Pearson first introduced CPP in 1963, which was legislated in 1965 and put into effect in 1966. The implementation of the CPP along with the Québec Pension Plan (QPP) makes a retirement pension available to all Canadian citizens. Citizens over the age of 18 are required to contribute a percentage of their earnings to CPP which funds the plan. The CPP is also used to cover disability, survivor, orphan and death benefits.The CPP legislation states that to make changes to the CPP (not the QPP) there must be an agreement met by at least 2/3 of Canadian provinces representing at least 2/3 of the country's population, which ensures due diligence. CPP has undergone reforms since its introduction and is often an area of debate for politicians as the number of retirees is expected to increase rapidly in the next few years. This leaves younger generations heavily responsible with the costs associated with CPP.

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Relocation of Africville

Following the War of 1812, thousands of African Americans journeyed from America to settle in Nova Scotia. Many settled in Africville, a small community located on the southern shore of the Bedford Basin, in the city of Halifax. Africville became a symbol of African Canadian marginalization. As land was loaned to the community rather than sold, the inhabitants of Africville were extending no property rights. Consequently, Africville was ravaged by infectious disease, garbage dumps and prisons. The community was not given access to water, a sewage system or to electricity. In addition, they were not extended essential services such as health care, a fire department or a police department. The neighbourhood was home to approximately 80 families and had a strong Baptist congregation. During the 1950s, city planners suggested that Africville be converted into an industrial space. Consequently, residents of Africville were relocated to government housing in other parts of Halifax. City officials claimed that the relocation would lead to improved living conditions and to the racial integration of African American residents. However, few Africville residents were able to prove a legal entitlement to their land and therefore were not eligible to receive a five hundred dollar compensation. Today Africville remains a symbol of African Nova Scotian identity as well as of the struggle against racism.

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The Canada flag

The current Canadian flag was raised on parliament hill in Ottawa on 15 February 1965. The previous flag, which bore the Union Jack and the shield of the royal arms of Canada, was lowered on this day. The introduction of the flag was a point of contention between the Prime Minister Lester B. Pearson and the leader of the Conservative opposition, John Diefenbaker, who strongly opposed the introduction of a new flag. The new flag was symbolic of a new stage for Canada. The Speaker of the Senate at the time, Honourable Maurice Bourget, said of its introduction: "The flag is the symbol of the nation's unity, for it, beyond any doubt, represents all the citizens of Canada without distinction of race, language, belief or opinion."

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Montreal EXPO '67

The idea of holding the World's Fair in Montreal was first discussed by Senator Mark Drouin during the 1958 World Fair in Brussels. Following this discussion, Montreal's Mayor, Sarto Fournier passed a resolution asking the Executive Board to develop a bid for Montreal to host the World’s Fair. Prime Minister Deifenbaker endorsed the bid in February 1960 and the federal government agreed to provide $20 million dollars to the project. In addition, the Québec government agreed provide $15 million and the City of Montreal would spend $5 million to pay for the Fair. In 1962 Montreal was officially won the bid for the 1967 World's Fair. The 1967 EXPO (World Fair) had a large and lasting economic impact on Montreal – the construction of large buildings, roads and parks such as the Decarie autoroute, the Hippolyte-Lafontaine bridge and tunnel and the Jean-Drapeau Park helped the city grow and prosper in the years following 1967. The Expo didn’t just have an economic impact on Montreal – the newly formed Montreal baseball team was named The Montreal Expo's in honour of the 1967 event. The EXPO had a large impact on Montreal and on Canada on a larger scale. It was a proud and exciting moment in Canadian history, which also coincided with the celebration of Canada's centennial year.

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Trudeau Era

Pierre Elliot Trudeau was elected in 1968 after the resignation of Lester B. Pearson. In the late 1960's "Trudeaumania" swept across Canada as Trudeau helped to make Canadian politics exciting and appealing to all demographics.Trudeau had an exciting and sometimes scandalous personal life, however, while in office he accomplished a lot, including: the Official Languages Act, 1969, implementation of War Measure Act, 1970, Wage and Price controls, 1975, appointed Jeanne Sauve as the first female Speaker of House of Commons, 1980, Canadian Charter of Rights, 1982, and partition of Canadian Constitution, 1982. He was also faced with the October Crisis (FLQ) during which he implemented the War Measures Act. The War Measures Act is still considered a controversial move by the Government despite the fact that it was highly supported during the time Trudeau's legacy is both favourable and controversial. He remains well regarded by many Canadians as a charismatic and confident Prime Minister who served Canada well.

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The October Crisis

The FLQ Crisis refers to the kidnapping of two government officials by the Front de libération du Québec (FLQ). The FLQ was a left wing nationalist and socialist paramilitary group in Québec. The FLQ were known as a terrorist group, which actively operated in Canada between 1963 to 1970. The crisis began with the kidnapping of British Trade Commissioner James Cross and Québec Labour Minister Pierre Laporte, who was later strangled to death by his kidnappers.. This led to the implementation of the War Measures Act under the direction of Prime Minister Trudeau. Under the War Measures Act, 497 people were detained by police and 62 were charged. The FLQ wanted to achieve independence in Québec. The FLQ used violence and propaganda to transmit their message and made it clear they were willing to resort to acts of terrorism if necessary to achieve their goals. Rallies in support of the FLQ scared and intimidated Canadians across the nation. After the controversial deployment of Canadian Forces troops, Trudeau was asked how far he would go to protect Canadian civil liberties to which he famously responded: "Just watch me".

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John Ralston Saul

John Ralston Saul is Canadian author, essayist and president of the International Postsecondary Education Network which advocates for the freedom of expression. Saul has written a number of books both fiction and non-fiction. This writings focus on topics such as citizenship and individualism, the failure of technocrat-led societies, military strategy, irregular warfare, freedom of speech and culture along with many other topics. His writings are widely thought to encompass views and opinions that have contributed to the development of Canadian identity. His most recent bestseller: A Fair Country: Telling Truths about Canada, Saul argues that "Canada is a métis nation, heavily influenced and shaped by aboriginal ideas: egalitarianism, a proper balance between individual and groups, and a penchant for negotiation over violence are all aboriginal values that Canada absorbed".

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Canada adopts

a policy of multiculturalism

In 1971, under Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau, Canada became the first country to officially adopt a policy of multiculturalism. The Multiculturalism Policy affirmed the "value and dignity of all Canadian citizens regardless of their racial or ethnic origins, their language, or their religious affiliation", it also confirmed the rights of Aboriginal people and the status of Canada's two official languages, French and English. Canada does not have a policy of assimilation, rather it embraces different cultures and ethnicities and encourages integration of all Canadians regardless of their origins, into society. Multiculturalism, diversity, tolerance and acceptance are all characteristics that strongly define Canada's national identity.

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Summit Series

The 1972 Summit Series refers to an eight game series between the Soviet Union and Canadian national ice hockey teams. Canada won four games to three, with one tie, however, the Summit Series was not the easy win that Canadians anticipated. Initial game losses put Canada in a position which required the team to win all three of the last games played to win. These last games were played in the USSR, where they were at a disadvantage. With the final game tied at 5-5 and with only 34 seconds left in the game, Paul Henderson got on the ice and scored the final goal. This goal is widely known as "the goal heard around the world". Had the game remained tied, the Soviets would have won the series because they had scored more goals throughout the series. The series was very tumultuous and at times controversial due to questionable refereeing, penalty calls, fighting between teams and injuries inflicted on team members. It also had political importance as it took place at the peak of the Cold War tensions between Western and Eastern countries. The win is considered one of Canada's proudest national moments. It solidified the belief that Canada produced the best hockey players in the world, however Canada also earned the recognition of having the top national teams.

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James Bay Project

The James Bay project is a large hydroelectric-power development located on La Grand River and on other rivers in Northern Québec. The development was started in the early 1970's on an area of land that had little population, but was on a huge watershed with the potential to generate an enormous amount of energy. The watershed was able to produce more than half of Québec's hydroelectric power. The controversy and conflict surrounding the James Bay project was that the used river water was re-directed in order to increase the flow of water/energy, caused flooding to land that was home to Cree and Inuit peoples. The diverted water also caused the contamination in the watershed, which poisoned fish and contributed to the deaths of approximately 10 000 caribou. The Cree and Inuit who lived in the Project area contested the construction, however, after much negotiation, they agreed to surrender their land and receive compensation from the government. The compensation package was set at $225 million, to be divided according to population over 25 years.

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Establishment of Nunavut

In 1976, Inuit leaders and the Canadian federal government began what would turn into over 20 years of negotiating the creation of an Inuit territory. A pivotal moment came in 1982 when 80% of of North West Territory residents voted in favour of creating a mainly Inuit eastern territory with their own government. Over a decade later, the Canadian government signed a land claim agreement, officially beginning the creation of the government of Nunavut which would give the Inuit people self-rule and control over their own institutions. On April 1, 1999, the new territory of Nunavut celebrated its official birthday with a ceremony celebrating Inuit culture.

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Terry Fox

In 1977 Terry Fox, at 19, found out he had a malignant tumour in his right leg. Shortly after, Fox had it amputated, 15 centimeters above his right knee. In 1979, Fox began training for his famous cross Canada marathon that raised money for cancer research and brought awareness to the Canadian population. The Marathon For Hope began on April 12th, 1980 in Newfoundland and ended September 1st, 1980 outside of Thunder Bay, Ontario. Fox had to end his marathon when it was discovered his cancer had spread to his lungs. He ran 143 days and 5,373 kilometers (3,339 miles). Despite receiving treatment for his lung cancer, Fox passed away in British Columbia in June, 1981. Terry Fox was voted Canada's Greatest Hero by a national Survey (1999) and has been honoured by countless Canadian awards. Every year in Canada there is the Terry Fox Run, which has become one of the most attended events in the nation. Over 40 million dollars has been raised in Terry Fox's name for cancer research.

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Worst Recession

since the Great Depression

In 1982, Canada's GDP dropped by 6.7% over 18 months. In the years leading up to the recession (1977-1981) the highest growth in consumer spending was 2.6%, which is far below the average rate of 6%. People were less willing to spend their money and creditors had to increase interest rates. The recession is attributed to a number of policies that were implemented at the time. Some of these include the high nominal and real interest rates introduced by many Western governments during the 1980's.

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Partition of Constitution

Establishment of the Charter of Rights and Freedoms

Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau initiated the patriation, or bringing the constitution from the United Kingdom, to Canada. Trudeau wanted to eliminate the control that the UK had over Canada's Constitution. The Constitution Act 1982 came into effect on 17 April 1982 and was comprised of seven parts – the first part was the Charter of Rights and Freedoms which lists fundamental freedoms that all Canadians have the right to. The charter also included a section regarding the equal status of French and English language and the right to education in one's mother language. Section 33 added a "notwithstanding" clause. This clause allows the federal government or provincial legislatures to enact legislation that appears to violate some of the Charter rights. This power is limited by only allowing some of the Charter rights to be overridden through Section 33 and the power to override is only on a temporary basis. The "notwithstanding" clause has caused some controversy since 1982, in particular with the issue of same-sex marriage. Québec's reluctance to adopt the Charter is because French language rights and the Canadian Superior Courts interference in Québec’s bills meant to protect/insulate the French language; the Supreme Court of Canada invalidated Québec's Bill 101 (otherwise known as The Charter of the French Language). The section of the Charter declaring equal status of French and English caused major conflicts and effect of this still last to this day.

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Meech Lake Constitutional Accord

In 1987 Prime Minister Brian Mulroney hoped to persuade the Québec’s Premier, Robert Bourassa, to endorse the 1982 Canadian Constitution and decrease support for the Québec separatist movement. In order to achieve this, Mulroney met with the leaders of ten provinces, including Bourassa for talks at Meech Lake. Despite this, the negotiations failed and Québec continued to reject the amendments made in 1982. Québec did not agree to the 1982 amendments of the Canadian Constitution and in turn demanded five modifications to the Constitution in 1987. These amendments included the recognition of Québec as a "distinct society", a constitutional veto granted to all provinces and increased provincial powers in the area immigration. The amendments generated strong response from both English and French Canada. Despite the changes and compromises made by provincial leaders, the negotiations ultimately failed and Mulroney's popularity plummeted after. Following the Meech Lake Accord there was the Charlottetown Accord in 1990, which contained similar amendment proposals – it also failed and to this day Quebec has yet to formally accept the 1982 Constitution.

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Montreal Protocol Conference

The Montreal Protocol Conference took place two years after the Vienna Convention on the Protection of the Ozone Layer. During the two years between conferences, a consensus was reached regarding the cause and severity of ozone layer depletion. The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer was negotiated and signed by Canada and 23 other countries in September of 1987. In September 2009, the Protocol achieved universal participation - 196 countries have signed and ratified the agreement. The Protocol has been one of the most successful international agreements to date. The protocol calls for the reduction over time of ozone-depleting substances. It is believe that if the reduction of these substances is stringently followed, ozone layer should return to its pre-1980 levels by 2050 to 2075.

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Montreal Massacre

On December 6th 1989 a gunman entered the École Polytechnique in Montreal, Quebec with a Mini-14 rifle and a hunting knife – he shot 28 people, killing 14 and himself. Marc Lepine began by entering a classroom and asked the men to leave. Lepine then declared he hated all woman and feminists and proceeded to shoot all 9 of the women in the class, killing 6. He continued his shooting spree throughout the building, specifically targeting women. The tragic act of violence led to debates interpreting the event. People questioned whether it was a representation of violence against women, a result of Lepine’s personal abuse as a child, violence in the media or just a random act of violence.

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Oka Crisis

The Oka Crisis began 11 July 1990 over a land dispute in the town of Oka, Quebec. The town of Oka planned to expand a golf course and residential development on the Kanesatake reserve which Mohawk people claimed ownership of. In response to the proposed development, the Mohawk people set up a barricade to Oka. From this point the situation quickly escalated. The Sûreté du Québec, or the SQ, the Quebec provincial police set up their own barricade. In response, another group of Mohawks barricaded a nearby bridge, which cut off all major routes of travel throughout the area. Police intervened and attacked the Mohawk barrier, which resulted in the death of one police officer. Following the attack, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police were deployed with additional Quebec-based military troops. After three months of fighting and negotiating, the Mohawks gave up the bridge at Oka, laid down their arms and returned to their reserve. The plans for development were cancelled and the crisis officially ended. The Oka Crisis brought native land rights back into the Canadian spotlight. It was considered a representation of situations that many First Nations people experienced in their history: land disappearing without consultation or compensation.

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GST comes into effect

On 1 January 1991, Prime Minister Brian Mulroney formally introduced the multi-level value added tax in Canada – the Goods and Services Tax (GST). Prior to the GST there was no federally imposed tax on goods and services though each province (except Alberta) had its own provincial sales tax. The tax replaced the hidden Manufacturer's Sales Tax (MST) of 13.5%. GST was charged on most consumer products except: groceries, residential rent, and medical and financial services. Exports were also included as their profits were hindered by the MST. The implementation of GST was highly controversial as the vast majority of Canadian's were against it. Despite the public’s oppostion, Mulroney used an obscure political provision that allowed him to make the tax law. Consequently, Prime Minister Mulroney's popularity suffered. Mulroney lost the 1993 federal election and Liberal party leader Jean Chrétien became Prime Minister.

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Defeat of Charlottetown Accord

The Charlottetown Accord was a proposed set of amendments that aimed to resolve long standing disputes around the division of powers between federal and provincial legislations, in addition to gaining Quebec's formal acceptance to the Canadian Constitution.The Charlottetown accord sought to complete what the 1987 the Meech Lake Accord was unable to do. Like the Meech Lake Accord, the Charlottetown Accord also failed.

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Romeo Dallaire

Lieutenant General, Romeo Dallaire served as Force Commander of United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda during the 1994 Rwandan genocide, where in just 100 days, Hutus killed more than 800 000 Tutsis and Hutu moderates in Rwanda. The UN peacekeeping force in Rwanda failed to stop the genocide, despite Dallaire's pleas to the international community to intervene and stop the mass killings. His initial mission was to help settle the civil war between the Hutus and Tutsis, however, Dallaire recognized signs of escalating violence and asked for more UN troops to be deployed. The UN, under pressure from the US, declined to send additional help and instead, deceased the number of UN troops in Rwanda. This action triggered the withdrawal of Belgian and European troops, leaving Dalliare nearly helpless, outnumbered and outgunned. Dallaire focused on protecting those he could with the little resources he had. Dallaire’s heroic actions credit him with saving the lives of over 32 000 Rwandans. Eventually, the Rwandan genocide received international press and the UN backtracked, sending 5500 French troops to assist in ending the genocide. Dalliare has received a number of awards and honours for his work in Rwanda in addition for his efforts to speak out against genocide. These include: Officer of the Legion of Merit from the United States of America which is the highest military decoration available to foreigners, being inducted as an Officer in the Order of Canada, the 25th Pearson Peace Medal awarded by Governor-General Adrienne Clarkson and being made a recipient of the Vimy Award. These awards are in addition to numerous other awards and honourary degrees. He was also one of the 8 Olympic flag bearers at the opening ceremonies for the 2010 Vancouver Olympic Games.

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Québec Referendum

The 1995 Québec Referendum asked voters in the province of Québec whether Québec should secede from Canada and become an independent state. The motion for succession was defeated by a very small margin – 49.42% voted “yes”, while 50.58% voted “no”. The vote came 15 years after the 1980 Québec referendum, where Rene Levesque promised, "À la prochaine fois!" (Until next time!).

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Julie Payette in Space

On May 27th, 1999, Montreal native Julie Payette became the first Canadian to participate in and visit the International Space Station. Payette was a part of a crew which delivered 4 tons of supplies to the Space Station. Payette, the second Canadian woman to have flown in space, travelled about four million miles during her historic flight. She later became the Chief Astronaut for the Canadian Space Agency, a position she held from 2000 to 2007.

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Peacekeeping in Afghanistan

Shortly after the September 11, 2001 attacks on the United States of America, Canada contributed troops to an international campaign fighting terrorism in Afghanistan and to help aid in the removal of the Taliban. Canada increased its military presence in the Kandahar province of Afghanistan in 2006, and to date, still has troops in the country. Prime Minister Stephen Harper has pledged to withdraw troops in 2011.

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SARS

Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome is a respiratory disease which causes flu-like symptoms in humans. A pandemic began in 2002 - 2003 when SARS rapidly spread from Guangdong, China, to 37 countries around the world. The World Health Organization reported that there were 8,096 known infected cases and 774 confirmed human deaths – including 44 in Toronto - between November 2002 and July 2003. A report on the incident by Ontario Justice Archie Campbell claimed that Ontario's health system was “broken”, claiming that Ontario was ill-equipped to deal with the crisis because of insufficient medical infrastructure.

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Maher Arar situation

Maher Arar, a Canadian telecommunications engineer, made international headlines when he was deported from New York City to Syria, where he was detained and tortured for a year. Arar, who immigrated to Canada from Syria in 1987, had been on vacation with his family when he was taken into custody by the U.S. Immigration Service while on layover in New York in October 2002. After being questioned for 13 days over alleged connections to al-Qa'ida, Arar was deported to Syria despite his Canadian citizenship and without the knowledge of his lawyer, family or the Canadian Consulate. Arar was held in an underground cell in Syria for almost a year, where he was routinely tortured without being charged and without being informed of the details of his case. In 2004, Canada launched a public inquiry into the affair which cleared Maher Arar's name of any links to terrorism and awarded him compensation. Despite Arar's exoneration in Canada, in 2010, the US Supreme Court rejected his lawsuit against the US government.

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Legalization of Gay Marriage

Just over a decade ago, on January 14, 2001, Joe Varnell and Kevin Bourassa, along with Anne and Elaine Vautour became the first same-sex couples to be married in Toronto, at Riverdale's Metropolitan Community Church. Same sex marriages were gradually legalized province by province, as a result of individual court cases in which provincial or territorial justices ruled existing bans on same-sex marriages unconstitutional. It was not until July, 20, 2005 that same-sex marriage was legalized nation-wide with the enactment of the Civil Marriage Act. This act states a gender-neutral definition of marriage. Canada is first country in the Americas and the fourth country in the world to legalize same-sex marriage.

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Kashechewan Water Crisis

In autumn 2005, Kashechewan, a Cree First Nation located in Northern Ontario, was put in the international spotlight after being evacuated when E.coli was discovered in the drinking water. The community, already on a boil water advisory at the time of the E.coli outbreak, had been identified in Canadian government reports for having severe problems with its water systems, though little action to correct this had been taken. The Kashechewan water treatment plant came under criticism for being too small to adequately serve the community. Its location was also criticized because it was built downstream from the community's sewage lagoon. To deal with the E.coli, chlorine levels in the water supply had to be raised to “shock” levels, which resulted in aggravated skin diseases such as scabies and impetigo. At the time of the water crisis, the community had already been evacuated several times because of severe flooding. Proposals were made to permanently relocate the community and equip it with better infrastructure.

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The Right Honourable Michaëlle Jean

First Black Governor General

The Right Honourable Michaëlle Jean, born in Port-au-Prince, Haiti, immigrated to Canada with her family in 1968, fleeing what was then a dictatorial regime. Jean became known for her work as a journalist and broadcaster with the CBC, as well as her charity work in the field of domestic violence. In 2005, Jean was sworn in as Governor General of Canada, becoming the second woman and first Caribbean born person to serve in this role. As Governor General of Canada, Jean chose as her motto “Briser Les Solitutes,” (Breaking Down Solitude), as she set about to promote open dialogue and give a voice to all Canadians.

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Chrétien Saying No to the Iraq War

Prior to the start of the Iraq War, Liberal Prime Minister Jean Chretien announced that Canada would join the United States in a military coalition to invade Iraq if, and only if, the United Nations sanctioned the war. The Iraq invasion did not receive support from the United Nations, and massive public protests took place in cities across Canada. Two days after the protests, Chretien announced that Canadian forces would not join the United States on their mission to Iraq. The Prime Minister's decision received overwhelming support from the public, as well as the NDP and Liberal Party. However, Conservatives and Canadian Alliance – especially Alliance Leader, Stephen Harper – criticized Chretien for damaging Canada's relationship with the United States and the Bush Administration.

Harper backing out of Kyoto Protocol

The Kyoto Protocol is an international deal which was ratified by the leaders of 141 industrialized countries, including Canada by Prime Minister Jean Chretien. The Kyoto Protocol addressed global warming by implementing targets to reduce the world's greenhouse gas emissions. The Kyoto Protocol is at the centre of a polarized debate over whether climate change is a problem to be solved and, if so, whether the Protocol can really address it.In 2006 newly elected PM, Stephen Harper publicly renounced Canada's commitment to the deal, proposing a “made-in-Canada” approach, though few details followed. Despite widespread criticism, the Harper government slashed funding from the federal budget designated for cutting greenhouse gas emissions.

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Stephen Harper

Elected as minority government

In the 2006 Canadian federal election Conservative Leader, Stephen Harper, was elected as Prime Minister with 36.3% of popular vote, putting an end to more than 12 years of Liberal governments. Winning 40.6% of seats in the House of Commons, the Harper government became the smallest minority government by proportion of seats since Confederation. The election sparked debate over how Canada can improve our electoral system to work to better represent all voters.

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Bill C-49: Refugee Claimants Bill

Bill C-49 was proposed with the goal to prohibit human trafficking in Canada by introducing the term “designated foreign nationals” to identify people arriving in Canada whose identity cannot be determined, or if human trafficking is suspected. If the Bill passes, this new class of prospective immigrants would be detained until it was determined whether they could be granted refugee status, or if they should be sent back to where they originated from.Many critics note that Bill C-49 goes contrary to a longstanding tradition of encouraging refugees to become permanent residents of Canada. It is also argued that it may impede legitimate refugee claims. Furthermore, critics claim that the bill does little to prevent human trafficking, but rather treats prospective refugees like criminals at the discretion of the Minster of Public Safety.

Vancouver Olympics

Vancouver hosted the 2010 Winter Olympics. Canada, with a total of 14 gold medals, broke the record for most gold medals won at a Winter Games. Notable moments included the Canadian defeat of the USA in men's hockey, Joannie Rochette's bronze medal win after her mother's unexpected death and the performances of many Canadian musicians at the opening and closing ceremonies. The Vancouver Olympics were hosted amid opposition and criticism from internationally mobilized anti-Olympics groups, over issues surrounding native land claims, government spending, gentrification, displacement and the death of the Georgian luger before the games began.

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